Ecological setting of phlebotomine sand flies in the Republic of Kosovo
Journal
Heliyon
Date Issued
2024-06
Author(s)
Trájer, Attila J.
Hoxha, Ina
Xhekaj, Betim
Platzgummer, Katharina
Dvořák, Vit
Obwaller, Adelheid G.
Walochnik, Julia
Sherifi, Kurtesh
Kniha, Edwin
DOI
10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33029
Abstract
Sand flies (Diptera, Psychodidae) are the principal vectors of Leishmania spp., the causative agents
of leishmaniasis, as well as phleboviruses. In the Balkans, the endemicity and spreading of sand
fly-borne diseases are evident, particularly in the Republic of Kosovo, a country with a predominantly
humid continental climate. To date, understanding the drivers behind the spatial
structure and diversity patterns of sand fly communities in humid continental regions remains
limited. Therefore, elucidating the geographical and ecological factors contributing to the presence
of potential vector species in the country is crucial. We aimed to enhance our understanding
of factors influencing sand fly occurrence in cool and wet wintering humid continental areas,
which could serve as a model for other countries with similar climatic conditions. Therefore, we
assessed the currently known sand fly fauna through detailed environmental analyses, including
Voronoi tessellation patterns, entropy calculations, Principal Coordinate and Component Analyses,
Hierarchical Clustering, Random Trees, and climatic suitability patterns.
Notable differences in the ecological tolerance of the species were detected, and the most
important climatic features limiting sand fly presence were wind speed and temperature seasonality.
Sand flies were observed to prefer topographical environments with little roughness, and
the modelled climatic suitability values indicated that, dominantly, the western plain regions of
Kosovo harbour the most diverse sand fly fauna; and are the most threatened by sand fly-borne
diseases. Phlebotomus neglectus and P. perfiliewi, both confirmed vectors for L. infantum and
phleboviruses, were identified as two main species with vast distribution in Kosovo. Contrary to
this, most other present species are relatively sparse and restricted to temperate rather than
humid continental regions.
Our findings reveal a diverse potential sand fly fauna in Kosovo, indicating the need for tailored
strategies to address varying risks across the country’s western and eastern regions in relation to
leishmaniasis control amidst changing environmental conditions.
of leishmaniasis, as well as phleboviruses. In the Balkans, the endemicity and spreading of sand
fly-borne diseases are evident, particularly in the Republic of Kosovo, a country with a predominantly
humid continental climate. To date, understanding the drivers behind the spatial
structure and diversity patterns of sand fly communities in humid continental regions remains
limited. Therefore, elucidating the geographical and ecological factors contributing to the presence
of potential vector species in the country is crucial. We aimed to enhance our understanding
of factors influencing sand fly occurrence in cool and wet wintering humid continental areas,
which could serve as a model for other countries with similar climatic conditions. Therefore, we
assessed the currently known sand fly fauna through detailed environmental analyses, including
Voronoi tessellation patterns, entropy calculations, Principal Coordinate and Component Analyses,
Hierarchical Clustering, Random Trees, and climatic suitability patterns.
Notable differences in the ecological tolerance of the species were detected, and the most
important climatic features limiting sand fly presence were wind speed and temperature seasonality.
Sand flies were observed to prefer topographical environments with little roughness, and
the modelled climatic suitability values indicated that, dominantly, the western plain regions of
Kosovo harbour the most diverse sand fly fauna; and are the most threatened by sand fly-borne
diseases. Phlebotomus neglectus and P. perfiliewi, both confirmed vectors for L. infantum and
phleboviruses, were identified as two main species with vast distribution in Kosovo. Contrary to
this, most other present species are relatively sparse and restricted to temperate rather than
humid continental regions.
Our findings reveal a diverse potential sand fly fauna in Kosovo, indicating the need for tailored
strategies to address varying risks across the country’s western and eastern regions in relation to
leishmaniasis control amidst changing environmental conditions.
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